Go to Eugenius III d. A new form of pious devotion is seen in Chartres, with people painfully dragging wagons of stone to enlarge the cathedral. Alfonso I takes Lisbon from the Muslims, with the unexpected help of some passing English crusaders. Go to Lisbon in World Encyclopedia 1 ed.
Gilbert of Hastings, an English priest, becomes bishop of the recovered see of Lisbon - the first of many such links between England and Portugal. Go to Louis VII c. Seville falls to the Almohads, from north Africa, who make it their Spanish capital.
In feudal France and Germany Charlemagne is by now venerated as a saint. The Medici move into Florence from their country home in the Mugello valley. The biblical kings and queens in the west porch of Chartres cathedral are a striking early example of Gothic sculpture. German merchants begin trading along the coasts of Latvia and Estonia, a region to which they give the name Livonia. The merging of Catalonia with Aragon, by marriage, creates a power in northern Spain of comparable strength to Castile.
Go to Catalonia in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Henry II, coming to the throne of England, is king or feudal overlord of an unbroken swathe of territory from the Tweed to the Pyrenees. A Russian prince, Andrei Bogolyubski, makes his capital east of Moscow at Vladimir, where he builds a cathedral and several churches. Go to Vladimir in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Go to Becket, Thomas c. Thomas Becket, having offended the king by his firm stand as archbishop of Canterbury, flees to a monastery near Paris.
Normans land in Ireland, seize Wexford, and in the following year capture Waterford and Dublin. The English exchequer grows in importance under Henry II, taking its name from the table on which financial calculations are made. The first known mystery play, the Mystery of Adam , takes place outside a church somewhere in France. Thomas Becket, in France, suspends the English bishops who have participated in the coronation of the 'Young King'. Go to Becket, St Thomas? The Scottish king, William the Lion, is captured raiding into Northumberland and is taken south with his feet tied beneath his horse.
The Gothic style is first seen in Britain in the new east end of Canterbury cathedral. Construction begins on London Bridge, the first stone bridge to be built across a tidal waterway.
The first known eisteddfod is held during Christmas festivities at Rhys ap Gruffydd's court in Cardigan castle. Go to eisteddfod in A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology 1 ed. In a treaty signed at Cazorla, the kings of Castile and Aragon agree on a plan of cooperation against the Muslims. Resentment of western merchants results in a massacre of Roman Catholics by fellow Christians in Constantinople.
Go to Richard I b. A year after succeeding to the throne of England, Richard I sets off east as one of the leaders of the third crusade. Richard I, returning from the Holy Land in disguise, is recognized in an inn near Vienna and is imprisoned until England pays a massive ransom. On the death of his brother, Richard I, John becomes king of England. The longbow, a weapon of great use to English armies, is probably first developed in Wales.
In the cathedral on Torcello, and in St Mark's, Venetian mosaics are a culmination in the west of the Byzantine tradition. Flemish towns begin to acquire municipal independence, as communes, following the earlier Italian trend.
German pressure eastwards the Drang nach Osten steadily brings colonists into regions previously occupied by Slavs. The heresy of the Cathars meaning 'pure' ones is now so well established in southern France that they have bishops of their own.
Go to heresy in A Dictionary of World History 2 ed. The fleet of the fourth crusade departs from Venice - only to be diverted from its purposes by Venetian guile. The crusaders of the fourth crusade besiege, take and destroy the Christian city of Constantinople. Venice takes the useful islands of Corfu and Crete as part of the spoils of the fourth crusade.
A Latin empire is set up in Constantinople on the same basis as the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. Many of the treasures adorning the church of San Marco in Venice are loot taken from Constantinople during the fourth crusade.
The murder of the pope's legate to Toulouse provokes the Albigensian crusade, which aims to wipe out the Catharist heresy. St Francis and eleven companions tell Innocent III of their wish for a life of holy poverty in the bustle of the towns.
Participants in the Children's Crusade suffer disaster after the waters of the Mediterranean fail to part for them. St Dominic and his companions tell Innocent III of their wish to teach and preach in the bustle of the towns.
Go to Dominic, St c. John, the king of England, fixes his seal to Magna Carta, which the barons place before him in a meadow called Runnymede. In Magna Carta's lesser clauses 39 and 40 there are enshrined certain basic guarantees concerning the rule of law. Nearly windows make Chartres cathedral the most magnificent display of early stained glass. Llewellyn ap Iorwerth acquires such authority over other Welsh chieftains that he is informally referred to as the prince of Wales.
Magna Carta is reissued slightly modified when Henry III comes of age; in the version which becomes enshrined in English law. Go to Henry III b. The kingdom of Granada is established with a Berber noble, Muhammad I, as the first king.
Go to acorn cup in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance 1 ed. Gregory IX sends Dominican friars to root out the remains of the Catharist heresy in France, thus launching the Inquisition. Go to Gregory IX c. Batu Khan and his Mongols sweep into Russia, where they and their descendants become known as the Golden Horde. Work begins on the Alhambra, the palace fortress of the Muslim kings of Granada.
Haakon IV is the first ruler to build up a strong Norway, some two centuries after the region becomes a single kingdom. Alexander, a Russian prince, defeats a Swedish army on the frozen river Neva, thus winning his name Alexander Nevksy.
Mongols of the Golden Horde reach Hungary, where they graze their horses for the summer before withdrawing to the Volga. Birger Jarl establishes a dynasty which brings all Sweden under a single rule. The Palio, in which horses race round the Campo in Siena, is held from this time.
A school of translation is set up in Toledo, to translate classical Greek texts from the Arabic versions into Latin. France becomes the first kingdom to establish a permanent parliament when Louis IX reserves a chamber in his palace for quarterly sessions.
Alexander Nevsky, appointed grand prince of Vladimir in , thrives by collaborating with the Mongols of the Golden Horde. Construction begins of two basilicas, one above the other on a hillside in Assisi, in memory of St Francis.
The pope, eager to fill the vacant throne of Sicily, offers it to a son of Henry III of England but gets no firm response. Pope Alexander IV establishes a third order of preaching friars, the Augustinians. Henry III accepts severe curtailment of his powers in the Provisions of Oxford, but then asks the pope to absolve him from his oath. Nicola Pisano completes a pulpit for Pisa, borrowing details from Roman sarcophagi - an early example of a new interest in the classical past.
Go to Pisano, Nicola c. A new form of poetry is written in northern Italy, described later by Dante as a sweet new style - the dolce stil nuovo. A Scottish victory over the Norwegians at Largs results in the recovery of the western isles.
Go to Montfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester c. Prince Edward, escaping from captivity, defeats and kills Simon de Montfort at Evesham. Thomas Aquinas begins the outstanding work of medieval scholasticism, his Summa Theologiae. The first mention of a lens occurs in a manuscript by Roger Bacon, to be soon followed by the invention of spectacles. Go to Bacon, Roger c. Novgorod asserts its independence, electing its own city magistrate to take over the role of the local Russian prince.
Marco Polo, aged seventeen, sets off from Venice on his journey to the east. Go to Polo, Marco c. Go to Edward I b. Dante, aged nine, is overwhelmed by the beauty of Beatrice - a child a year younger than himself who later becomes his poetic inspiration. An incident in a church service sparks the uprising known as the Sicilian Vespers, in which French are killed overnight in Sicily. An uprising by Llewellyn ap Gruffydd, the prince of Wales, ends with his own death and the subjugation of Wales by the king of England, Edward I.
Edward I begins a series of powerful castles - Harlech, Caernarfon and Conwy in this year alone - to subdue the Welsh. Edward I of England arranges for his 5-year-old heir to marry Margaret the Maid of Norway, the 7-year-old heiress to the kingdom of Scotland. Go to Margaret, Maid of Norway c. The death of Margaret, child heiress to the Scottish throne, results in John de Balliol being chosen as king.
Go to John Balliol b. The Jews in England are driven out of the country, soon to be followed by those in France. The parliament summoned by Edward I in Westminster Hall is later seen as a 'model' for the breadth of its representation. Marco Polo is back in Venice after an absence of 25 years in the east. The English government in Dublin calls a parliament on the lines of England's recent Model Parliament.
Go to Wallace, William d. The authorities in Siena publish strict regulations for the design of the buildings around a new central piazza, the Campo. Go to Siena in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Marco Polo, in prison in Genoa, is persuaded by a fellow prisoner to narrate his adventures. The English longbow, in one of its early appearances, proves too much for the Scots at Falkirk. Edward I's victory at Falkirk ends the career of William Wallace, of whom nothing more is heard until his capture and execution in Southampton boasts the earliest known bowling green, mentioned in a document of this year.
Go to bowls in A Dictionary of British History 1 rev ed. Flying buttresses are a striking new structural feature on the exterior of Gothic cathedrals.
The Early English phase in Gothic architecture gives way to the Decorated style. The Italian communes employ powerful leaders, or signori , in a trend which leads away from oligarchy and towards princely rule. The bankers of northern Italy develop a method of accountancy - double-entry book-keeping - which will have lasting significance. Go to double-entry book-keeping in A Dictionary of Accounting 4 ed. Duns Scotus, known as the Subtle Doctor in medieval times, later provides humanists with the name Dunsman or dunce.
Go to Duns Scotus, Bl Johannes c. Andrew III of Hungary dies without an heir, bringing to an end four centuries of rule by the descendants of Arpad.
The estates-general of France gather for the first time, in Notre Dame, to consider the king's relationship with the pope. Dante, a member of the White faction in Florence, is sentenced to death by the Blacks - and never returns to his native city. Enrico degli Scrovegni employs Giotto to paint the cycle of frescoes in his chapel in Padua. Go to Giotto c. After the murder of his rival, in a church in Dumfries, Robert de Bruce is crowned king of Scots at Scone.
Robert de Bruce, in hiding on the island of Rathlin, is supposedly given a lesson in perseverance by a spider. Go to miniature painting in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Dante, in exile from Florence, begins work on The Divine Comedy - completing it just before his death, 14 years later. The Teutonic knights seize the coastal area round Gdansk, cutting off Poland's access to the sea. Clement V moves the papacy to Avignon, in a move which is expected to be temporary but which lasts for nearly seventy years.
The hiatus on the Hungarian throne ends when the Angevin contender is crowned as Charles I. The Knights of St John capture the island of Rhodes, which they rule as their own sovereign state for more than two centuries.
Fifty-four Knights Templars are burned at the stake, during the campaign of the French king to destroy the order. After years of guerrilla warfare, Robert de Bruce defeats the English conclusively at Bannockburn - and becomes at last secure in his kingdom.
Edward Bruce is crowned king of Ireland at Dundalk, but his uprising ends two years later when he is killed in battle with the English. Go to Bruce, Edward d. In places such as Siena and Orvieto, Italian architects add a blaze of colour to the more restrained northern pattern of Gothic.
Florence becomes a centre of international finance, with the Bardi and Peruzzi families acting as bankers to Europe's rulers. Wladyslaw I is crowned king of Poland in Cracow, which he makes his capital city. A treaty divides Finland between two powerfully competitive neighbours, Sweden and Novgorod. Moscow acquires new prestige when the metropolitan or patriarch of the Russian Orthodox church moves his residence from Vladimir. Edward II is captured and imprisoned by his queen, Isabella, and her lover, Mortimer.
Petrarch glimpses Laura in a church in Avignon and falls helplessly in love with her - or so he tells us. Edward II, imprisoned by his wife and her lover, dies in Berkeley castle - almost certainly the victim of murder.
When Charles IV dies, for the first time in more than years of the Capetian dynasty there is no son or brother to inherit the French crown. The English finally accept a treaty, in Edinburgh, declaring that Robert de Bruce is king of a Scotland 'free and divided from the kingdom of England'.
The Doge's Palace, begun in its present form in this year, is only one of the spectacular beauties of Venetian Gothic. William of Ockham advocates paring down arguments to their essentials, an approach later known as Ockham's Razor. Go to Ockham's razor n. A laurel wreath is placed on the brow of Petrarch in Rome, in a renewal of interest in the classical world. The bridge now known as Ponte Vecchio is constructed in Florence replacing an older old bridge.
Go to Florence in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Edward III establishes a new kind of knighthood with the Order of the Garter, conferred purely as an honour. The English siege of Calais ends when six burghers of the town, with ropes around their necks, offer their lives to save their fellow citizens. Cola di Rienzo, appointed tribune of the people, enjoys a few months of dictatorial powers in Rome before the citizens tire of him. Go to Rienzo, Cola di c. Boccaccio begins his Decameron , supposedly the stories told by young Florentine men and women sheltering from the Black Death.
Go to Boccaccio, Giovanni —75 in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The Perpendicular style develops from the Decorated phase in English Gothic architecture. Water power is used in England for the heavy work of fulling cloth, in mills which can be seen as a first step towards the Industrial Revolution. Armies of mercenaries, led by condottieri , conduct Italian warfare at an often extortionate rate. Boccaccio, visiting Petrarch in Florence, is inspired to devote himself to the pursuit of classical studies.
Gallipoli is taken by the Ottoman Turks, giving them their first foothold in Europe. The battle of Poitiers ends, on the third day, with victory for the English and the capture of the French king, John II. After four years of captivity in Bordeaux and London, the French king John II is released for a promised ransom of 3 million gold crowns.
A great clock is completed in Padua, regulated mechanically by foliot and escapement. Go to escapement in A Dictionary of Physics 6 ed. A narrator who calls himself Will, and whose name may be Langland, begins the epic poem of Piers Plowman.
Go to Chaucer, Geoffrey c. The marriage of the duke of Burgundy to the heiress of Flanders lays the foundation for the great territorial expansion of Burgundy.
John Wycliffe, writing mainly in Oxford, is critical of the contemporary church and can find no basis for the pope's authority. Go to Wycliffe, John c. The papal curia returns to Rome in what would seem a conclusive move if there were not, two years later, two popes - one of them elected back in Avignon.
Jogaila inherits a pagan Lithuanian kingdom which has been extended as far south as Kiev. John Hawkwood, a condottiere in command of the White Company, is appointed captain general of Florence. Go to condottiere in A Dictionary of World History 2 ed. Dimitri, grand prince of Moscow, leads other Russian princes in a crushing victory over the Mongols on the Kulikovo plain.
The Venetian blockade of Chioggia costs Genoa her fleet and ends Genoese rivalry with Venice in the eastern Mediterranean. A poll tax imposed in England provokes widespread unrest, which flares up in the Peasants' Revolt.
Go to Tyler, Wat d. Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the signore of Milan, sets about enlarging his territory - seizing Vicenza, Verona and Padua between and The victory at Aljubarrota, securing the Portuguese throne for John I, is commemorated in the Dominican abbey called Batalha.
Chaucer completes Troilus and Criseyde , his long poem about a legendary love affair in ancient Troy. John I, newly victorious in Portugal, proposes an alliance with England which has never been revoked. A clock, designed only to strike the hours, is installed in Salisbury cathedral and is still working today.
Jadwiga, year-old queen of Poland, marries Jogaila, her year-old pagan neighbour - uniting the crowns of Poland and Lithuania. Jogaila, baptized a Roman Catholic before marrying Jadwiga, brings Lithuania into the Christian fold - the last part of Europe to be converted.
Chaucer begins an ambitious scheme for Canterbury Tales , of which he completes only 24 by the time of his death. Victory at Kosovo gives the Ottoman Turks control over Serbia, which becomes a vassal state. Go to Robert III c. Fan vaulting becomes part of the Gothic tradition, seen to perfection in the cloisters of Gloucester cathedral. Go to Elbe in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Charles VI, king of France, suffers the first of many violent fits of madness. Go to Sluter, Claus c.
With the coronation of the year-old Eric of Pomerania, the crowns of Denmark, Norway and Sweden are formally united for the first time. A dangerous feud develops between two of England's most powerful barons, Henry of Bolingbroke son of John of Gaunt and Thomas de Mowbray. Go to John of Gaunt b. Henry of Bolingbroke returns to England to lead an armed rebellion against his cousin the king.
Richard II dies in Pontefract castle, almost certainly starved to death on the orders of the new king - insecure on his throne as an undeniable usurper. The followers of Wycliffe, after his death, become known as Lollards or 'mutterers'.
Go to Lollards in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The English mystery cycles are performed by trade guilds, on carts pulled from audience to audience around the city. Go to Owain Glyn Dwr b. Majolica, or tin-glazed earthenware, reaches Italy from Majorca and thus gets its name. Pisa is captured by Florence, to be followed a few years later by the purchase of the seaport of Livorno.
Go to Pisa in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Go to James I b. The Council at Pisa elects a new pope, Alexander V, without persuading the other two to resign - bringing the total to an unprecedented three. The Poles defeat the Teutonic knights between Tannenberg and Grunwald, bringing the coastal strip around Gdansk into the Polish kingdom. The Viking settlement in Greenland ends, after years, when the last ship leaves the colony and sails for Norway.
Go to Greenland in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. The linen drapers of Florence commission a statue of St Mark from Donatello, who carves for Orsanmichele the first free-standing Renaissance sculpture. Go to Donatello c. Go to Henry V b. Filippo Brunelleschi begins studying the ruins of classical Rome, with a view to rediscovering classical architecture. Henry V captures the French stronghold of Harfleur - where, in Shakespeare, he urges his dear friends 'once more unto the breach'.
Henry V wins a victory on St Crispin's day at Agincourt, against a much larger and more heavily armed French force.
A Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator, becomes fascinated by exploration down the coast of Africa and commissions successive voyages. A competition is launched for an architect to construct a dome above Florence's cathedral, and is won by Brunelleschi. After a six-month siege Henry V makes a triumphal entry into Rouen, the city of his Norman ancestors. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, is murdered by the Armagnac faction in the presence of the dauphin - escalating France's civil war. Go to Aal, Johannes c.
Glazed windows become a feature of the richer homes of northern Europe. Go to windows in The Oxford Companion to Architecture 1 ed. The Portuguese, discovering the lush and uninhabited island of Madeira, send colonists to settle it. The treaty of Troyes, between the English and the Burgundian faction, grants Henry V the status of heir to the French throne.
Henry V marries Catherine, daughter of the French king and sister of the rightful heir to the kingdom, the dauphin, who is on the opposing side. Go to Henry VI b. Masaccio paints some of the frescoes in the chapel of a Florentine silk merchant, Felice Brancacci, in Santa Maria del Carmine.
Go to Masaccio 21 Dec. A Portuguese captain, sailing for Henry the Navigator, chances upon the Azores. Go to Azores in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. Joan of Arc stands nearby while Charles VII is anointed at Reims, then kneels before him and for the first time calls him her king. Joan of Arc is captured in a skirmish with the Burgundians, who subsequently hand her over to the English.
Work begins in Florence on Brunelleschi's Pazzi chapel, which encapsulates in miniature the new ideals of Renaissance architecture. Joan of Arc, tried by the Inquisition on behalf of the English in Rouen, is burned at the stake as a relapsed heretic. Go to Inquisition in World Encyclopedia 1 ed. A new altarpiece is installed in the cathedral in Ghent, introducing the powerful realism of Jan van Eyck.
Go to Eyck, Jan van c. Cosimo de' Medici, arrested by a rival faction, escapes with his life thanks to bribes and well-placed friends. Giovanni Arnolfini, a merchant from Lucca trading in Bruges, commissions from van Eyck a portrait of himself and his wife.
Rogier van der Weyden, the third in the extraordinary trio of Flemish artists of the s, is appointed painter to the city of Brussels. Go to Weyden, Rogier van der c. Perspective fascinates Italian Renaissance painters after the publication of Alberti's treatise on the subject, De Pictura. Go to Alberti, Leon Battista 14 Feb. Go to James II b. The French clergy pass a resolution at Bourges, limiting the power of the papacy within France, which is adopted by the king as a 'pragmatic sanction'.
Florence acquires first-hand experience of Greek culture when Greek Orthodox priests join in a debate on theology, in particular the question of Filioque. Portuguese settlers are sent to the unoccupied islands of the Azores. Skanderbeg, Albania's national hero, begins his long campaign of successes against the Turks. The Dominican convent of San Marco, in Florence, is provided with a serenely beautiful series of frescoes by Fra Angelico and his assistants.
Go to Angelico, Fra c. A Turkish army routs the Hungarians at Varna on the Black Sea, beginning a process which brings the Turks to the gates of Belgrade by Portugal claims ownership of the region of Guinea, subsequently the centre of their slave trade on the west African coast.
Piero della Francesca paints masterpieces in his small home town of San Sepolcro. Go to Piero della Francesca c. The Swedish Riksdag includes peasants as a fourth estate, alongside clergy, nobles and burghers. The caravel, a sailing ship developed in the Mediterranean and used down the west coast of Africa, is adapted by the Portuguese for Atlantic use. The French bring two small cannon on to the battlefield at Formigny, where they have a significant effect in achieving the French victory. Christian boys, trained as slaves in the personal service of the Turkish sultan, acquire considerable power as the elite corps of janissaries.
Francesco Sforza, a soldier of fortune, wins power in Milan. Go to Uccello, Paolo c. Go to Fouquet Foucquet , Jean c. The Turks terrify Constantinople by lobbing vast stones at the city from a ton bombard of cast iron.
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If you have a math problem that requires you to calculate years across B. For example, if you need to work out how many years are between January 1, B. However, you still have to adjust for the absence of year 0. You do this by removing 1 from your answer, so minus 1 is The calculation is a little more complicated when you are calculating partial years across B. First, change the month of the year into decimal form.
If 12 months is 1, then nine months is 0. Say you need to work out what calendar year was years before October A. The simplest method is to take the starting calendar year and figure out how much time has lapsed since January 1, A. In other words, October in the year was 1, Then calculate About years ago as at Log in.
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